Assisted migration poleward rather than upward in elevation minimizes frost risks in plantations

Abstract When assisted migration is used to address climate change, tree seedlings may have to be moved to substantially colder environments in anticipation of climate warming over their life span. Here, we evaluate frost risks for four economically important forest tree species of western Canada, Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), interior spruce (Picea glauca, P. engelmannii, and their hybrids), and western larch (Larix occidentalis), when moved to adjacent northern and higher elevation seed zones that are cooler by approximately 2 °C. Changes to risks of damaging frosts among seed zones are evaluated during two 30-day periods, after dormancy release in spring and before onset of dormancy in fall, assuming a temperature-dominated day of bud break and a critical photoperiod-controlled onset of dormancy in fall. Based on daily interpolated climate data between 1980 and 2019, we find that late spring and early fall frost risks do not change significantly for transfers toward the north (