Sensitivity of surface solar radiation to aerosol–radiation and aerosol–cloud interactions over Europe in WRFv3.6.1 climatic runs with fully interactive aerosols

Abstract. The amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface can be highly determined by atmospheric aerosols, which have been pointed to as the most uncertain climate forcing agents through their direct (scattering and absorption), semi-direct (absorption implying a thermodynamic effect on clouds) and indirect (modification of cloud properties when aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei) effects. Nonetheless, regional climate models hardly ever dynamically model the atmospheric concentration of aerosols and their interactions with radiation (ARIs) and clouds (ACIs). The objective of this work is to evince the role of modeling ARIs and ACIs in Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) model simulations with fully interactive aerosols (online resolved concentrations) with a focus on summer mean surface downward solar radiation (RSDS) over Europe. Under historical conditions (1991–2010), both ARIs and ACIs reduce RSDS by a few percentage points over central and northern regions. This reduction is larger when only ARIs are resolved, while ACIs counteract the effect of the former by up to half. The response of RSDS to the activation of ARIs and ACIs is mainly led by the aerosol effect on cloud coverage, while the aerosol effect on atmospheric optical depth plays a very minor role, which evinces the importance of semi-direct and indirect aerosol effects. In fact, differences in RSDS among experiments with and without aerosols are smaller under clear-sky conditions. In terms of future projections (2031–2050 vs. 1991–2010), the baseline pattern (from an experiment without aerosols) shows positive signals southward and negative signals northward. While ARIs enhance the former and reduce the latter, ACIs work in the opposite direction and provide a flatter RSDS change pattern, further evincing the opposite impact from semi-direct and indirect effects and the nontrivial influence of the latter.