Conclusions and a Glimpse into the Future

Shiga toxins are a significant, continuing threat to human health due to their intrinsic toxicity, prevalence in the environment, and continuing evolution. Their structures and binding preferences are mutable by recombination in the lambdoid phages that produce them. The toxins are delivered by several bacterial species, comprising many strains and serotypes. Advances in understanding the basic biology of Stx production has led researchers to new methods of inactivating or thwarting these toxins. Animal vaccines to reduce STEC populations in food animals have been developed and approved, and similar strategies for the human population are actively being pursued.